級數 (Series)

  • 定義: 級數(series)
    • 給定序列 {an}\lbrace a_n \rbrace, 則(無窮)級數為 ∑n=1∞an\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} a_n.
    • 此級數之部份和為 sn=∑k=1nans_n = \sum_{k=1}^{n} a_n.
    • 此級數收斂若 limn→∞sn=s\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty} s_n = s, 常寫為 ∑n=1∞an=s\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} a_n = s.
  • The Cauchy critertion
  • ∑n=1∞an\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} a_n converges ⇔\Leftrightarrow ∀ϵ>0\forall \epsilon > 0 ∃n0∈N\exists n_0 \in \mathbb{N} ∋\ni ∣∑k=nmak∣≤ϵ\vert \sum_{k=n}^m a_k \vert \leq \epsilon ∀m,n≥n0\forall m, n \geq n_0.
  • Let m=nm=n, then ∣an∣≤ϵ\vert a_n \vert \leq \epsilon ∀n≥n0\forall n \geq n_0 ⇒\Rightarrow limn→∞an=0\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty} a_n = 0.
  • 級數收斂的必要條件是數列必須收斂至0。(可解釋為如果在無窮多項時,數列之值仍不為0,則累加之值必須持續上升而發散。)
  • 反之數列收斂為0無法保證級數收斂。
  • E.g. limn→∞1n=0\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty} \frac{1}{n} = 0, but ∑n=1∞1n\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{1}{n} diverges.
  • Definition: 絕對收斂(absolute convergence)
  • The series ∑n=1∞an\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} a_n is said to converge absolutely if the series ∑n=1∞∣an∣\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \vert a_n \vert converges (i.e. ∑n=1∞∣an∣≤∞\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \vert a_n \vert \leq \infty)..
  • 由定義可知 ∑∣an∣≤∞\sum \vert a_n \vert \leq \infty ⇒\Rightarrow ∑an≤∞\sum a_n \leq \infty. (∵∣∑an∣≤∑∣an∣ \because \vert \sum a_n \vert \leq \sum \vert a_n \vert ).
  • 反之不成立,E.g. ∑(−1)nn\sum \frac{(-1)^n}{n}.
  • 對於每一個均為正值的數列,絕對收斂等價於一般的收斂 (an≥0⇔∣an∣=ana_n \geq 0 \Leftrightarrow \vert a_n \vert = a_n)。

序列重排 (Series rearrangements)

  • 序列重排是將原數列ana_n的部份元素調換順序後形成的新數列an′a_n^{'},因此可以在兩數列中找到一個1-to-1 function。
  • 如果sn=∑k=mnans_n=\sum_{k=m}^n a_n且sn′=∑k=mnak′s_n^{'} = \sum_{k=m}^{n} a_k^{'}為兩數列的partial sum,可知在大部分的情況下sn≠sn′s_n \neq s_n^{'}.
  • Theorem: 若級數∑an\sum a_n收斂,但非絕對收斂,則重排後的級數∑an′\sum a_n^{'}可能會收斂到任意值,或是不收斂。
  • Let ∑an\sum a_n be a series of real numbers, which converges but not absolute converges. Suppose that −∞≤a≤b≤∞-\infty \leq a \leq b \leq \infty, then there exists a rearrangement ∑an′\sum a_n^{'} with the partial sum sn′s_n^{'} such that liminfn→∞sn′=a\lim \inf_{n \rightarrow \infty} s_n^{'} = a and limsupn→∞sn′=b\lim \sup_{n \rightarrow \infty} s_n^{'} = b.
  • Theorem: 絕對收斂的級數,經過序列重排後,仍然收斂到相同值。
  • If ∑an\sum a_n is a series of complex numbers which converges absolutely, then every rearrangement of ∑an\sum a_n converges and they all converges to the same sum.

級數審斂法 (Series test)

  • Exponential number e=∑n=0∞1n!e=\sum_{n=0}^{\infty} \frac{1}{n!}
  • limn→∞(1+1n)n=e\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty} (1+\frac{1}{n})^n=e.

根值審斂法 (root test)

  • Given ∑an\sum a_n, let limsupn→∞∣an∣1/n=a\lim \sup_{n \rightarrow \infty} {\vert a_n \vert}^{1/n} = a then
  • If a<1a < 1, ∑an\sum a_n converges.
  • If a>1a > 1, ∑an\sum a_n diverges.
  • If a=1a=1, the test gives no information.
  • 實際使用此法時,取a=limn→∞∣an∣1/na=\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty} {\vert a_n \vert}^{1/n}.

比例審斂法 (Ratio test)

  • Given ∑an\sum a_n, then
  • if limsupn→∞∣an+1an∣<1\lim \sup_{n \rightarrow \infty} \vert \frac{a_{n+1}}{a_n} \vert < 1, ∑an \sum a_n converges.
  • If ∣an+1an∣≥1\vert \frac{a_{n+1}}{a_n}\vert \geq 1 for n≥n0n \geq n_0, ∑an \sum a_n diverges.
  • Ratio test比root test更直覺且容易計算,但root test的用途更廣。
  • Theorem: For any sequence {cn}\lbrace c_n \rbrace of positive numbers
  • liminfn→∞cn+1cn≤liminfn→∞cn1/n\lim \inf_{n \rightarrow \infty} \frac{c_{n+1}}{c_n} \leq \lim \inf_{n \rightarrow \infty}{c_n}^{1/n}.
  • limsupn→∞cn1/n≤limsupn→∞cn+1cn\lim \sup_{n \rightarrow \infty} {c_n}^{1/n} \leq \lim \sup_{n \rightarrow \infty} \frac{c_{n+1}}{c_n}.
  • 此定理說明了若比例審斂法收斂 ⇒\Rightarrow 根值審斂法也收斂。

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